NOAA Center for Excellence for Great Lakes and Human Health Center Publications

Center Publications

2007

Effects of Wastewater Disinfection on Waterborne Bacteria and Viruses
Authors: Blatchley, Ernest R; Gong, Woei-Long; Alleman, James E; Rose, Joan B; Huffman, Debra E; Otaki, Masahiro; Lisle, John T
Source: Water Environment Research, January 2007, 79(1): 81-92(12)

Abstract: Wastewater disinfection is practiced with the goal of reducing risks of human exposure to pathogenic microorganisms. In most circumstances, the efficacy of a wastewater disinfection process is regulated and monitored based on measurements of the responses of indicator bacteria. However, inactivation of indicator bacteria does not guarantee an acceptable degree of inactivation among other waterborne microorganisms (e.g., microbial pathogens). Undisinfected effluent samples from several municipal wastewater treatment facilities were collected for analysis. Facilities were selected to provide a broad spectrum of effluent quality, particularly as related to nitrogenous compounds. Samples were subjected to bench-scale chlorination and dechlorination and UV irradiation under conditions that allowed compliance with relevant discharge regulations and such that disinfectant exposures could be accurately quantified. Disinfected samples were subjected to a battery of assays to assess the immediate and long-term effects of wastewater disinfection on waterborne bacteria and viruses. In general, (viable) bacterial populations showed an immediate decline as a result of disinfectant exposure; however, incubation of disinfected samples under conditions that were designed to mimic the conditions in a receiving stream resulted in substantial recovery of the total bacterial community. The bacterial groups that are commonly used as indicators do not provide an accurate representation of the response of the bacterial community to disinfectant exposure and subsequent recovery in the environment. UV irradiation and chlorination/dechlorination both accomplished measurable inactivation of indigenous phage; however, the extent of inactivation was fairly modest under the conditions of disinfection used in this study. UV irradiation was consistently more effective as a virucide than chlorination/dechlorination under the conditions of application, based on measurements of virus (phage) diversity and concentration. Taken together, and when considered in conjunction with previously published research, the results of these experiments illustrate several important limitations of common disinfection processes as applied in the treatment of municipal wastewaters. In general, it is not clear that conventional disinfection processes, as commonly implemented, are effective for control of the risks of disease transmission, particularly those associated with viral pathogens. Microbial quality in receiving streams may not be substantially improved by the application of these disinfection processes; under some circumstances, an argument can be made that disinfection may actually yield a decrease in effluent and receiving water quality. Decisions regarding the need for effluent disinfection must account for site-specific characteristics, but it is not clear that disinfection of municipal wastewater effluents is necessary or beneficial for all facilities. When direct human contact or ingestion of municipal wastewater effluents is likely, disinfection may be necessary. Under these circumstances, UV irradiation appears to be superior to chlorination in terms of microbial quality and chemistry and toxicology. This advantage is particularly evident in effluents that contain appreciable quantities of ammonia-nitrogen or organic nitrogen.

Modeling the Fate and Transport of Bacteriophage PRD-1 in a Large Surface Water System: The Grand River Watershed, Michigan
Authors: Phanikumar, M. S.; Shen, C.; Fong, T. T.; Rose, J. B.
Affiliation: AA(Michigan State University, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, East Lansing, MI 48824 United States ; AB(Michigan State University, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, East Lansing, MI 48824 United States, AC(Michigan State University, Department of Fisheries & Wildlife, East Lansing, MI 48824 United States ; AD(Michigan State University, Department of Fisheries & Wildlife, East Lansing, MI 48824 United States;
Source: American Geophysical Union (AGU), Fall Meeting 2006

Abstract: Understanding the transport of biological agents that mimic the movement of pathogenic microorganisms in surface waters is important from the point of human health as well as risk assessment. In May 2006, we conducted a field experiment on the Grand River, Michigan using a conservative tracer (Rhodamine-WT) and the bacteriophage PRD-1, a surrogate for human viruses. Observed concentrations of the chemical and biological tracers were described using a transport model that included the effects of transient storage in addition to virus sorption and inactivation. Linkages between watershed-scale processes and in-stream processes were an important aspect of the modeling. Here we describe the similarities and differences between the two tracers (e.g., travel times and recovery factors) as well as environmental factors that influence virus transport and inactivation in the surface water system.

Sensitivity Analysis of Factors Influencing the Fate and Transport of Fecal Indicator Bacteria in Southern Lake Michigan
Authors: Schwab, D J, Thupaki, P, Phanikumar, M S Whitman, R L Nevers, M B Shively, D A
Affiliations: NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL), 4840 S. State Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48105, United States, Michigan State University, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering , East Lansing, MI 48864, United States, USGS Great Lakes Science Center, Lake Michigan Ecological Research Station, Porter, IN 46304, United States
Source: Advances in Water Resources (AGU), 2007

Abstract: To understand the factors that influence the fate and transport of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) in the nearshore waters of the Great Lakes, we examined two southern Lake Michigan beaches (as well as the tributaries discharging into the lake in the vicinity of the beaches). A three-dimensional, -coordinate Princeton Ocean Model (POM) with a nested-grid was used to describe wind-driven circulation in Lake Michigan. A biological model coupled to the hydrodynamic and temperature fields in the lake was used to describe the observed FIB levels near the beaches. We report simulation results for the summers of 2004 and 2006. Inactivation of pathogens in the nearshore region is influenced by a complex set of factors including solar insolation, water temperature, settling of particulate matter, resuspension, turbulent diffusion, loading from tributaries etc. Efforts to systematically quantify the relative contributions of these complex and often inter-related processes are somewhat limited, especially for freshwater environments. Here we describe sensitivity analyses based on our numerical simulations with the objective of ranking the various processes involved in terms of their relative importance. We also examine the performance of different mathematical formulations of inactivation in order to identify their relative merits.

Separating surface storage from hyporheic retention in natural streams using wavelet decomposition of acoustic Doppler current profiles
Authors: Mantha S. Phanikumar, Irfan Aslam, Chaopeng Shen, Thomas C. Voice, David T. Long
Affiliations: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA, Department of Geological Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA, Department of Geological Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
Source: Water Resources Research, May 1, 2007, 43

Abstract: The ability to separate surface storage (e.g., due to in-channel features such as eddies and pools) from retention due to hyporheic exchange is important in many solute transport considerations; however, current stream tracer approaches do not allow such separation. We examined transient storage processes in a fourth-order Michigan stream using tracer studies, numerical flow and transport models, and hydrodynamic data obtained from acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) surveys. Since the high-resolution, three-dimensional velocity fields obtained from an ADCP relate to in-channel processes, we used wavelet decomposition to separate the flow into regions of slow and fast moving zones and to estimate the relative sizes of the main channel (A) and the storage zones (A S ). Transport modeling based on the tracer data provided estimates of storage zone sizes that included contributions from both surface storage and hyporheic exchange. By coupling the estimates from tracer data with those obtained from an ADCP we were able to assess the relative importance of surface storage in different stream reaches. Estimated (A S /A) values in three test reaches ranged from 0.12 to 0.22, and transient storage residence times varied from approximately 4 min in a run reach dominated by surface storage (reach A) to about 13 min in a reach with some potential for hyporheic exchange (reach C). In reach A the (A S /A) values estimated from tracer and ADCP data were in good agreement, indicating that in-channel processes were the main mechanism responsible for storage in this reach. Reach C estimates, however, showed that surface storage (A S /A = 0.05) accounted for only a fraction of the transient storage estimated using tracer data (A S /A = 0.12), which indicated that hyporheic exchange contributed to transient storage in the reach. The wavelet decomposition approach based on the ADCP data provides a framework to better constrain transient storage models and to eliminate unrealistic parameters.

Simplified enrichment and identification of environmental peptide toxins using antibody-capture surfaces with subsequent mass spectrometry detection
Authors: Gregson BP, Millie DF, Cao C, Fahnenstiel GL, Pigg RJ, Fries DP.
Affiliations: Center for Ocean Technology, University of South Florida College of Marine Science, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA.
Source: Journal of Chromatography, August 11, 2006, 1123(2): 233-8

Abstract: The development of a simplified assay for detection of congeners of the microcystin (MC) hepatotoxin is described that combines the extreme sensitivity of surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight MS (SELDI TOF-MS) with the superior selectivity of immunoaffinity interactions. Using methods similar to those of conventional immunoassays, MC standards were captured and enriched on immunoreactive ProteinChips coated with an MC-antibody and analyzed by TOF-MS. Unlike with conventional immunoassays, individual congeners were resolved from mixed pools. Assay conditions were optimized for the quantification of MC from untreated raw pond water at concentrations as low as 0.025 microg L(-1), well below the public health relevant guideline of 1 microg L(-1).

2006

The Fate and Transport of Biological Tracer PRD-1 in a Complex Water System in Michigan
Authors: Fong, T.T., M.S. Phanikumar, J.B. Rose et al
Source: Applied and Environmental Microbiology

Microcystin Concentrations and Genetic Diversity of Microcystis in Saginaw Bay and Western Lake Erie
Authors: Dyble, J., Fahnenstiel, G., Litaker, R. W., Millie, D. F., & Tester, P.
Source: Environmental Health Perspectives, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography Summer Meeting, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, June 5-9, 2006. (2006).

Modeling Phytoplankton Abundance in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron: Using Artificial Neural Networks to Discern Functional Influence of Environmental Variables and Relevance to a Great Lakes Observing System
Authors: Millie, D. F., G. R. Weckman, R. J. Pigg, P. A. Tester, J. Dyble, R. W. Litaker, H. J. Carrick, and G. L. Fahnenstiel
Source: Journal of Phycology, 2006, 42:336-349

Abstract: To investigate the transport and fate of fecal pollution at Great Lakes beaches and the health risks associated with swimming, the near-shore waters of Lake Michigan and two tributaries discharging into it were examined for bacterial indicators of human fecal pollution. The enterococcus human fecal pollution marker, which targets a putative virulence factor-the enterococcal surface protein (esp) in Enterococcus faecium, was detected in 2/28 samples (7%) in the tributaries draining into Lake Michigan and in 6/30 samples (20%) in Lake Michigan beaches. This was indicative of human fecal pollution being transported in the tributaries and occurrence at Lake Michigan beaches. To understand the relative importance of different processes influencing pollution transport and inactivation, a finite-element model of surf-zone hydrodynamics (coupled with models for temperature, E. coli and enterococci) was used. Enterococci appear to survive longer than E. coli, which was described using an overall first-order inactivation coefficient in the range 0.5-2.0 per day. Our analysis suggests that the majority of fecal indicator bacteria variation can be explained based on loadings from the tributaries. Sunlight is a major contributor to inactivation in the surf-zone and the formulation based on sunlight, temperature and sedimentation is preferred over the first-order inactivation formulation.

Single-platform Detection and Identification of Environmental Peptide Toxins Using Antibody-capture Surfaces with Subsequent Mass Spectrometry Detection
Authors: Gregson, B. P., D. F. Millie, C. Cao, G. L. Fahnenstiel, and D. P. Fries
Source: Journal of Chromatography A., 2006, 1123:233-238.

Abstract: The development of a simplified assay for detection of congeners of the microcystin (MC) hepatotoxin is described that combines the extreme sensitivity of surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight MS (SELDI TOF-MS) with the superior selectivity of immunoaffinity interactions. Using methods similar to those of conventional immunoassays, MC standards were captured and enriched on immunoreactive ProteinChips coated with an MC-antibody and analyzed by TOF-MS. Unlike with conventional immunoassays, individual congeners were resolved from mixed pools. Assay conditions were optimized for the quantification of MC from untreated raw pond water at concentrations as low as 0.025 µg L–1, well below the public health relevant guideline of 1 µg L–1.

Spatially Modeling Nonpoint Source Pollution Loadings in the Saginaw Bay Watersheds with the DLBRM
Authors: He, C., and T. E. Croley II
Source: Proceedings of the Geographic Information Systems and Water Resources IV AWRA Spring Specialty Conference, Houston, Texas, 8-10 May 2006

Abstract Accurate nonpoint source (NPS) pollution accounting is essential to effective water quality and ecosystem management. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory and Western Michigan University are jointly developing a physically based, spatially-distributed hydrology model to simulate spatial and temporal NPS material distributions in the Saginaw Bay watersheds, draining into Georgian Bay in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Multiple databases of meteorology, land use, topography, hydrography, soils, and agricultural statistics were used to estimate nonpoint source loading potential in the study watersheds. Animal manure production was computed from tabulations of animals by zip code area for the census years of 1987, 1992, 1997, and 2002. Relative chemical loadings for agricultural land use were calculated from fertilizer and pesticide estimates by crop for the same periods. These estimates are used as the input to the distributed water quality model for simulating pollutant transport through surface and subsurface processes to Great Lakes waters. Visualization and GIS interfaces are developed to visualize the spatial and temporal distribution of the pollutant transport. These simulations, once verified with the in situ Saginaw Bay water quality data, will provide important information to researchers and decision makers for developing the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) mandated Total Maximum Daily Load programs to minimize the nonpoint source pollution in the watersheds.

The Transport and Inactivation of E. coli and Enterococci in the Nearshore Region of Lake Michigan
Authors: Liu, L., M.S. Phanikumar, S.L. Molloy, R.L. Whitman, M.B. Nevers, D.A. Shively, D.J. Schwab, J.B. Rose
Source: Environmental Science & Technology, 2006, 40(16):5022-5028

Watershed Surface and Subsurface Spatial Intraflows Mode
Authors: Croley, T.E.,II, and C. He
Source: Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 2006, 11(1):12-20

Abstract: We present new developments to the original, spatially lumped large basin runoff model (LBRM) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. In addition to making it a two-dimensional, spatially distributed model, we modify it to allow routing flows between adjacent cells upper soil zones, lower soil zones, and groundwater zones. We modify the LBRM continuity equations for these additional flows and add corresponding corrector terms to the original solution equations. We derive the flow network from elevation and hydrography and the LBRM automatically arranges cell computations. We apply the newly modified LBRM to the Kalamazoo River watershed in Michigan and to the Maumee River watershed in Ohio. The simulations show that the Kalamazoo River has dominant groundwater storage, allowing delayed and sustained hydrologic responses to rainfall whereas the Maumee River lacks any significant groundwater storage, allowing a fast flashy response to rainfall. These results are characteristic of the study watersheds, indicating that the addition of subsurface intraflows in the model has improved watershed representation.

2005

A Comparison of Knowledge Extraction Techniques from an Artificial Neural Network in Ecological Monitoring.
Authors: Weckman, G. R., Millie, D. F., Ghai, V., & Ganduri, C
Source: American Society of Mechanical Engineers Press, New York, 2005, 15:761-766
Proceedings of the 2005 Artificial Neural Networks in Engineering (ANNIE) Conference, November 6-9, St. Louis, Missouri.
NOTE: Nominated for Best Conference/ Proceedings Paper- The Authors have been requested to submit a manuscript of expanded length for subsequent journal publication.

Distributed-parameter Large Basin Runoff Model I: Model Development
Authors: Croley, T. E., II, and C. He,
Source: Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 2005, 10(3):173-181

Abstract: We present a case study of modifying an existing macroscale rainfall-runoff model, the large basin runoff model (LBRM), developed at NOAA's Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, to the microscale in a two-dimensional representation. First, we review the LBRM and then describe changes in several process submodels, which were originally designed specifically for large areas. We also change the model structure so that we may use the LBRM on an individual cell at the microscale within a watershed. We then discuss spatial scaling of model parameters to enable an (initial) application to the microscale with parameters available from the macroscale. We then organize watershed cells and flow routing and conclude with notes on computer implementation. In the accompanying companion paper, we present details of the model calibration, application, and experimentation on the Kalamazoo River watershed.

Distributed-parameter Large Basin Runoff Model II: Application
Authors: Croley, T. E., II, C. He, and D. H. Lee
Source: Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 2005, 10(3):182-191

Abstract: Following the derivation of a distributed-parameter large basin runoff model from a lumped-parameter version for the Great Lakes in the companion paper, we here apply it to the Kalamazoo River watershed in southwest Michigan. First we review relevant similar efforts and then describe the digitization of the watershed into a network of cells through which watershed internal flows are routed. We present the technology used on the Kalamazoo River to create grids of topography, soils, land use, and vegetation data. We describe the calibration of both lumped-parameter and distributed-parameter runoff models on the Kalamazoo River and use observed spatial data variations in our parameter determinations. We investigate alternative evapotranspiration schemes, spatial parameter patterns, solar insolation interpretations, and temporal scaling and compare model results. We suggest model extensions for future work.

Estimating Nonpoint Source Pollution Loadings in the Great Lakes Watersheds
Authors: He, C., and T. E. Croley II
Source: Proceedings of the International Conference on Poyang Lake Wetland Ecological Environment, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China, 27 June 2005, 12 pp., Compact Disc

Abstract: Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) from contaminated sediments, urban runoff, storm sewers, and agriculture impairs Great Lakes shoreline waters; accurate NPS accounting is essential to effective water quality and ecosystem management. We are developing a physically based, spatially-distributed hydrology model to simulate spatial and temporal NPS distributions in the Saginaw Bay watersheds. Multiple databases of meteorology, land use, satellite imagery, topography, hydrography, soils, and agricultural statistics are used to estimate nonpoint source loading potential in the study watershed. Soil erosion and sediment yield by both wind and water are estimated based on the universal soil loss equation and vegetation indices derived from the satellite imagery. Animal manure production is computed from tabulations of animals by zip code area. Relative chemical loadings for agricultural land use are calculated from county fertilizer and pesticide estimates by crop. These estimates will be used as the input to the water quality model for simulating pollutant transport through surface and subsurface processes to the Great Lakes waters. After verification with Saginaw Bay water quality data, these simulations will help researchers better understand the dynamics of Great Lakes aquatic systems and enable agencies to target critical areas for management.

Great Lakes Spatially Distributed Watershed Model of Water and Materials Runoff
Authors: Croley, T. E., II, and C. He
Source: Proceedings of the International Conference on Poyang Lake Wetland Ecological Environment, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, P.R. China, 27 June 2005, 12 pp., Compact Disc.

Abstract: Prediction of various ecological system variables or consequences (such as beach closings), as well as effective management of pollution at the watershed scale, require estimation of both point and non-point source material transport through a watershed by hydrological processes. The Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory and Western Michigan University are developing an integrated, spatially distributed, physically-based water quality model to evaluate both agricultural non-point source loadings from soil erosion, animal manure, and pesticides, and point source loadings at the watershed level. We are augmenting an existing physically based integrated surface/subsurface hydrology model. It is a two-dimensional, spatially distributed accounting of moisture in several layers (zones) for every “cell” (1 square kilometer) of a watershed. We modified the model to allow flow routing between adjacent cells surface zones, upper soil zones, lower soil zones, and groundwater zones. We are expanding it, by adding material transport capabilities to it, to include movement of other materials besides water. We will gather information on pollutants in Saginaw Bay watersheds and apply the model to simulate the movement of various materials into the bay, producing estimates useful to ecological system forecasters.

The Influence of Land Use on Sediment Transport and Quality of Dissolved Organic Matter in a Lake Michigan Tributary
Authors: McElmurry, S., M.S. Phanikumar, C. Shen, D.T. Long, T.C. Voice and Joan B. Rose
Source: Water Research

Modeling the Fate and Transport of Bacteriophage PRD1 in Surface Waters
Authors: Shen, C., M.S. Phanikumar, I. Aslam, M.J. McCormick and J.B. Rose
Source: Water Resources Research

Now cast modeling of Escherichia coli Concentrations at Multiple Urban Beaches of southern Lake Michigan
Authors: Nevers, M.B. and R.L. Whitman.
Source: Water Research, 2005, 39(20):5250-5260

Abstract: Predictive modeling for Escherichia coli concentrations at effluent-dominated beaches may be a favorable alternative to current, routinely criticized monitoring standards. The ability to model numerous beaches simultaneously and provide real-time data decreases cost and effort associated with beach monitoring. In 2004, five Lake Michigan beaches and the nearby Little Calumet River outfall were monitored for E. coli 7 days a week; on nine occasions, samples were analyzed for coliphage to indicate a sewage source. Ambient lake, river, and weather conditions were measured or obtained from independent monitoring sources. Positive tests for coliphage analysis indicated sewage was present in the river and on bathing beaches following heavy rainfall. Models were developed separately for days with prevailing onshore and offshore winds due to the strong influence of wind direction in determining the river’s impact on the beaches. Using regression modeling, it was determined that during onshore winds, E. coli could be adequately predicted using wave height, lake chlorophyll and turbidity, and river turbidity (R2 1/4 0:635, N 1/4 94); model performance decreased for offshore winds using wave height, wave period, and precipitation (R2 1/4 0:320, N 1/4 124). Variation was better explained at individual beaches. Overall, the models only failed to predict E. coli levels above the EPA closure limit (235 CFU/100 ml) on five of eleven occasions, indicating that the model is a more reliable alternative to the monitoring approach employed at most recreational beaches.

Report to Congress on the Development of Forecasting Models for Beach Closings in Southern Lake Michigan
Author: Schwab, D.J.
Source: 2005, 18pp.

Sensitivity Analysis of Factors Influencing the Fate and Transport of Fecal Indicator Bacteria in the Surf Zone
Authors: Liu, L., M.S. Phanikumar, R.L. Whitman and J.B. Rose
Source: Advances in Water Resources